Decision-Making

Introduction to Decision-Making

Life is full of decisions.

From the moment we wake up to the time we get to bed, we are faced with decisions. These decisions vary in gravity and impact. It can range from what to have for breakfast to what field to pursue in college.

Making decisions is all about choosing a course of action from the available alternatives in order to achieve a goal. Depending on the size of the decision you are making or the type of decision-maker you are, you could be making your decisions in a snap or only after going through a careful and deliberate step-by-step process.

As a leader in any organization, your actions could decide the future of the entire organization. Finding opportunities and avoiding problems are part of the decision-making process. One of the most crucial factors to consider when deciding as a leader is the ethics of your decision.

When evaluating the ethics of your decision, these are some of the fundamental questions to ask:

• Is this fair?
• Will I feel better or worse about myself after I make this decision?
• Does this decision break any organizational policy?
• Does this decision violate any law?
• How would I feel if this decision was made public?

Types of Decision

• Rational Decisions Those that went through a formal decision-making process with the goal of improving and optimizing results
• “Good Enough” Decisions Those that are made after selecting from a limited set of options and chosen without a thorough search for alternatives
• Intuitive Decisions Those that are made without thinking about them
• Creative Decisions Those that are made with the goal of creating new and inventive ideas

Intuition vs Instinct

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Creative Decisions

Creative decisions are said to be made through the following step-by-step process:

• Step 1: Problem Recognition
• Step 2: Immersion
• Step 3: Incubation
• Step 4: Illumination
• Step 5: Verification and Application

Creativity is said to be made up of fluency, flexibility, and opportunity. Furthermore, experts have said that creativity is the result of a combination of the following:

1. people’s personal qualities (e.g. openness to new experiences, risk-taking);
2. their attributes (e.g. expertise, imagination, motivation); and,
3. the surroundings (e.g. encouragement from others, time pressure, physical structures).

Other Types of Decisions

Aside from the four general types of decisions mentioned above, we also have the following types of decisions to consider:

• Strategic Decisions vs Routine Decisions As the name implies, strategic decisions are the important decisions in an organization. They are usually taken by middle and upper-level manager and require analysis and careful study. They affect the entire organization, including routine decisions which involve the daily functioning of the organization. High-level managers would generally delegate these types of decisions to their subordinates.

• Programmed Decisions vs Non-Programmed Decisions Programmed decisions are those that are repetitive and does not bear deliberation. As the name implies, these decisions are made by following a specific protocol. These are usually done by lower management. Non-programmed decisions come from situations which do not have a standard procedure setup for them. These are some of the more important decisions of the organization and are usually made by upper management.

• Policy Decisions vs Operating Decisions Policy decisions are tactical decisions that involve the policy and planning of an organization. They are usually made by top management and have a long-term impact on the organization. Operating decisions, on the other hand, are those that act on policy decisions. They are usually handled by middle and lower management.

• Organizational Decisions vs Personal Decisions Organizational decisions are those made by a decision-maker in the firm in their capacity as a leader. These decisions can be delegated to subordinates. Personal decisions are those taken by these same people but are not in any way related to the organization’s operations. These cannot be delegated to subordinates.

• Individual Decisions vs Group Decisions Individual decisions are those taken by leaders in an official capacity. Group decisions are those taken by multiple members of the same organization, e.g. a board of directors, in their capacity as decision-makers in the organization.

Problem-Solving

Problem-solving is the analytical method of finding answers to challenges. The primary goal of the process is to find the best solution to an issue and achieving a goal.

The first step when attempting to solve a problem is to clearly identify it. You may have to ask yourself questions like:

• What happened?
• Why did it happen?
• How do we know there is a problem?
• What do we need to do to remedy the problem?

Characteristics of Decision-Making

These are the important characteristics of decision-making:

• Goal-Oriented Decision-making is a process that is focused on achieving specific goals. They are frequently made with a specific purpose or objective in mind. The goal is to progress “toward an ideal set of circumstances.”
• Alternatives A decision should be thought of as a “point in a stream of activity.” Search and selection are two actions that define it. The manager seeks for possibilities, makes judgements, and weight options in order to take action. Choices lead to choices, which lead to decisions. It is the process of deciding on a course of action to solve an issue. When you don’t have a choice what to do, you can’t make a decision.
• Analytical-Intellectual Decision-making isn’t solely a mental exercise. It encompasses both conscious and unconscious parts, as well as intuitive and deductive logic. Part of it can be learned, but the decision-maker’s characteristics determine part of it. Decision-making isn’t entirely quantifiable, yet it’s also not solely dependent on logic or intuition. Emotions or instincts play a big role in a lot of decisions. The decision means that the decision-maker has complete flexibility in making the ultimate decision; it is uniquely human and results from deliberation, appraisal, and thought.
• Dynamic Process Rather than being viewed as a single static entity, decision-making is viewed as a process. It is a process of efficiently utilizing inputs to solve specific issues and create useful outputs. Furthermore, it is a procedure for “finding worthwhile things to do in a dynamic environment.” A manager, for example, may consistently hire employees based on merit and, on occasion, select applicants recommended by a powerful party. Managers use discretion and judgment to make appropriate decisions based on the circumstances.
• Pervasive Function Decision-making pervades all levels of management and touches every aspect of a business. A manager does what he does solely through decision-making. The end products of a manager’s job are decisions and actions. The essence of a manager’s work is decision-making.
• Continuous Activity The life of a manager is one of constant decision-making. They make decisions on a regular and consistent basis. It’s not a one-time thing.
• Commitment of Time, Effort, and Money Making a decision entails devoting time, effort, and money. Depending on the decision, the commitment could be brief or long-term. Following a decision, the organization advances in a defined direction in order to fulfill the objectives.
• Human and Social Process Decision-making is a human and social process that involves reasoning, intuition, and judgment. When selecting a variety of options, the human and societal aspects of the decision are frequently considered. Managers in a labor surplus, a capital-hungry country like India, for example, can’t just shut down plants, slash divisions, and extend the golden handshake to everyone.
• Integral Part of Planning According to Koontz, decision-making is at the heart of planning. Both are mental activities that necessitate deliberation and judgment. Both are working for the same goal. Both are congruent on the situation. Both need you to choose amongst various possibilities. Both are based on forecasts and assumptions about future risk and uncertainty.

Characteristics of a Good Decision

As a decision-maker, it is your job to make decisions that improve the situation for everyone involved. Good decisions will have the following characteristics:

• Positively impact others
• Replicable
• Foster opportunity
• Include others
• Executable
• Systematic
• Accountable
• Pragmatic
• Involve self-awareness

Principles of Decision-Making

In general, the following are the principles of decision-making:

• Principle of Definition For the correct decision to be made, the leader must be aware of the exact problem. Once the real problem has been correctly identified and defined, a solution can be sought. Too often, time and energy are wasted solving the wrong problems.

• Principle of Evidence Decisions must be based on some kind of evidence-backed judgment. Decisions made hastily and without sufficient evidence usually reveal to be incorrect. Every choice a decision-maker makes needs to be carefully considered and supported by facts.

• Principle of Identity Different people have different perspectives on the same thing. The same fact could appear different to different people. When making a decision, it is critical to accommodate the viewpoints of all the people involved. Every person should be heard and their opinions carefully weighed before making a conclusion.

More Notable Principles

• Purpose-Driven People need a reason to participate in the process.
• Inclusive, Not Exclusive All interested parties in the issue should be involved in the collaborative process.
• Educational The process relies on mutual education of all participants
• Voluntary The interested parties must participate voluntarily.
• Self-Designed All parties have an equal opportunity to participate in the collaborative process. It must be explainable and designed to meet the circumstances and needs of the situation.
• Flexible The process should be able to accommodate changing issues, data needs, political environment, and programmatic constraints such as time and meeting arrangements.
• Egalitarian All parties have an equal access to relevant information and the opportunity to participate effectively throughout the process.
• Respectful The diverse values, interests, and knowledge of the involved parties must be accepted.
• Accountable The participants are accountable both to their constituencies and to the process that they have agreed to establish.
• Time-Limited Realistic deadlines are necessary throughout the process.
• Achievable The involved parties must make sure that the decision made is feasible.
• Openness Decision-makers should be accepting of the opinions of the community they serve.
• Responsiveness The needs of all involved parties must be met.
• Representative The decision should be made in accordance to the interests of the entire community.
• Stewardship All resources must be used carefully, lawfully, and in the interest of the entire community.
• Integrity Decisions must be made while following the highest of ethical standards.
• Equality Everyone should be served and reached by the decision made.

Principles of Making Good Decisions

These are the principles of good decision-making:

• All actions should be proportionate to the outcome.
• All decisions should reflect a respect for human rights.
• We should be clear about our goals and what we want to achieve.
• We should consider equality and diversity.

Guidelines in Decision-Making

Decision-making entails recognizing and defining the nature of a situation, identifying alternatives, selecting the best option, and acting upon it. The process of arriving at a decision can become difficult. The following step-by-step guide can help one make more deliberate and thoughtful decisions:

1. Define the problem Recognize the problem or opportunity and decide to address it. Clearly identify the problem you are trying to solve or the goal you are trying to achieve to avoid wasting time on irrelevant matters.
2. Gather information Collect relevant information about the problem or goal. This can be done by brainstorming with a team or doing research on the matter at hand. Information must be gathered from multiple sources to ensure a more comprehensive understanding of the situation.
3. Identify alternatives Create a list of possible paths of action or possible options or solutions to the problem. Consider both traditional and creative approaches to solving the issue at hand.
4. Weigh the evidence Evaluate the feasibility, acceptability, and desirability of each option based on a established criteria. Consider the advantages, disadvantages, risks, and benefits of each option. Place the options in a priority ranking according to your personal value system.
5. Choose among alternatives Pick the best option according to the rankings you have created.
6. Take action Create an action plan to implement the decision made, then delegate tasks as necessary.
7. Evaluate the decision Review the decision and assess its outcomes. Determine whether it was successful in achieving the desired results. If necessary, modify the approach and repeat the process accordingly.

Extra step: Learn from the decision. Reflect on the decision-making process and identify what can be learned from it. Use the information to become a better decision-maker in the future.

Helpful Decision-Making Techniques

• The 2-Minute Rule Whenever you need to decide, set a timer and start the process. This forces you to quickly weigh your options when making a decision.
• Think Black and White Sometimes, we have more options available that we would want. This excess can lead to overwhelm and can even cause analysis paralysis. Simplify the process by eliminating less-than-optimal choices.
• Put it in a Hat As the name implies, put your options in lots, put them in a hat, and draw. The one chosen at random will be the decision.
• Focus on the Present When trying to see how our decisions will affect us in the future, we can get overwhelmed by the large picture. Instead, try and live in the moment. Make a decision based on what appears to be the best option at present.
• Embrace the Idea of Failure The biggest fear that a decision-maker can have is the fear of our choices resulting in poor outcomes. This can result in overthinking and second-guessing every part of the decision. Instead, decide now and learn from your mistakes later.

Factors that Influence Decision-Making

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Individual vs Group Decision-Making

As mentioned, individual decisions are those organizational decisions made by leaders in an official capacity. If an organizational decision was made collaboratively by more than one member of the organization, then it is a group decision.

Group decision-making is a participatory process where group members share their ideas, knowledge, expertise, and experience to solve complex problems.

Pros and Cons

Individual decisions are made faster than group decisions, but group decisions are created from a more diverse set of ideas. As such, individual decisions are best made by individuals who usually outperforms the group. Unfortunately, choosing the best individual can be challenging, depending on the situation of the organization.

The advantage is that having only one person make an organizational decision avoids group dynamics, such as groupthink.

However, it does mean that group members might have less commitment to the decision. As mentioned above, group decisions are easier to implement because they positively affect members of the organization and make them more committed to the decision.

When the decision is done by an individual, it is easier to determine who is responsible for it. However, it also means that the decision might be put off by that individual.

On the other hand, making group decisions can be positive for the organization as it can serve as a team-building activity. Of course, when there is an entire group making a decision, there could be social loafing and it is harder to place accountability.

Police Decision-Making

Police officers are said to be the gatekeepers of the criminal justice system. They must make a variety of key judgements in the course of their duty and contacts with people in their jurisdiction. Officers employ normative factors like accountability and blameworthiness and pragmatic efficiency criteria like the likelihood of conviction, the amount of time and effort required, and so on, to make decisions.

Officers have a lot of legal authority and make many significant judgment that have an impact on the liberty and safety of citizens. Therefore, it’s crucial to understand how they make these judgments and what the societal repercussions are.

Traditionally, police activity has been reactive, with officers responding to citizen calls after crimes have been committed and communal peace has been broken. Police work also entails proactive surveillance in order to detect criminal conduct while it occurs.

The decision-making process in police organizations is generally made up of these three stages:

1. Intelligence This involves scanning the environment for conditions that require a decision.
2. Design Entails creating, developing, and analyzing possible courses of action, i.e. implementing creative problem solving.
3. Choice Refers to the actual selection of a particular course of action from among available alternatives.

Police officers use different operational styles to inform their arrest judgments, which are based on their general attitudes toward justice and law enforcement obligations. These are the general types of operational styles:

• The Tough Law Enforcer arrests major offenders and rule breakers
• The Mediator prioritizes community peace and frequently employs mediation and other informal techniques to address conflicts
• The Rule Follower makes arrest choices based on organizational policy or legal regulations

The normative frame and the efficiency frame are two key decision frames. Officers who focus on who is responsible for the harm in the normative frame; they focus on whether there is enough evidence to get a conviction in the efficiency frame.

Influences in Police Decision-Making

• Emotions Individuals are more prone to engage in acts based on broad generalizations and have a stronger belief in the legitimacy of these activities when their emotions are high. As a result, emotions may play a significant influence in judgment and decision-making. While emotions are more directly linked to the experiential system, they are not regarded as the system’s decision-making base.
• Anger The knowledge that anger adds to the appraisal of choices may influence policy decisions. On the other hand, when anger is controlled, it works against the natural response that is inherent in the expression and suppression of anger, which frequently occurs in police work. Anger, being a negative affective experience, has distinct consequences on cognitive processes like judgment.
• Anger Control Controlling rage, which is a type of emotional coping, necessitates a reconsideration of an otherwise distressing emotional event in order to alleviate discomfort. Anger control is a type of emotion regulation that involves modifying an emotional response’s sensation and presentation.
• Decision-Making Styles Individual variations can have an impact on decision-making in addition to emotional variables.
• Intuitive Decision-Making Intuitive decision-making is the process of making decisions based on feelings and hunches, and it is associate with a spontaneous approach to decision-making. This decision-making strategy may evolve. Intuitive reasoning, in other words, emerges from instinctive responses, broad experience, and concentrated learning.
• Rational Decision-Making The act of making logical evaluations of options and engaging in exhaustive search techniques is referred to as rational decision-making, and it is adversely connected with a spontaneous approach to decision-making. In other words, compared to intuitive decision-making, rational decision-making is more analytical and slower.

Influences to the Decision-Making Process in Police Organizations

Decision-making in police organizations involves a complex and dynamic process that is influenced by a range of factors:

• Chain of Command Most police organizations have a hierarchical structure, with clear lines of authority and decision-making power. Decisions are typically made by the highest-ranking officers or officials, and these decisions are communicated down the chain of command to lower-ranking officers and staff.
• Policy and Procedure Many decisions in a police organization are guided by established policies and procedures. These policies may be set at the national, state, or local level and provide guidelines for how officers should handle various situations.
• Legal Requirements The Philippine National Police (PNP) is bound by laws and regulations that dictate how they should operate. These legal requirements can influence decisions related to arrests, use of force, and other activities.
• Resource Availability The PNP’s decisions are also influenced by the resources available to them, including funding, manpower, and equipment.
• Public Opinion The PNP is accountable to the public, and their decisions can be influenced by public opinion. The police must balance the needs and expectations of the community they serve while maintaining their duty to upload the law and protect citizens.
• Training and Experience Police Officers receive extensive training and experience, which can help inform their decision-making in the field. This includes training on the use of force, de-escalation techniques, and how to handle various types of crimes and emergencies.

Critical Decision-Making Factors for Police Officers

Making operational decisions is a complicated process. It requires leadership that cares about doing the right thing for everyone. Here are the seven critical decision-making factors for police officers:

• It is never about you.
• You have to think globally.
• Make the right decision for the right reasons.
• The needs of the community can dictate a decision.
• Remember that every decision you make has a person attached to it.
• Do not judge the result – judge the path to the result.
• Remember the 24-hour rule.

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